Consumer Reports’ Guide to Better, Safer Drinking Water
Many Americans still drink water with unhealthy levels of toxic chemicals, heavy metals, bacteria, and other contaminants. Here’s how to test yours and clean it up.
Fifty years ago, Consumer Reports published a groundbreaking investigation into the nation’s drinking water. Its title: “Is the Water Safe to Drink?” (Download a PDF of this three-part series from the June, July, and August 1974 issues of Consumer Reports magazine.)
The answer, for the most part, was no. Our water was often contaminated with bacteria, viruses, asbestos, and lead. Testing and treatment was inadequate. Money to fix the problem was almost nonexistent. And new concerns—including “thousands of new synthetic compounds” about which little was known—were emerging.
Later that year, the federal Safe Drinking Water Act was passed, with Consumer Reports’ strong support. It was a triumph of consumer protection that authorized the new Environmental Protection Agency to set legal limits on contaminants in drinking water.
Today, while the nation’s water is in many ways safer than ever, it remains vulnerable to threats old and new, says Ronnie Levin, an instructor in environmental health at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health in Boston and the lead author of a September 2023 review of U.S. water quality in the Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology.
Compared with half a century ago, she says, “a lot of things are better, but a lot of things, surprisingly, are not.”
True, the EPA has set limits on many contaminants, like arsenic—but experts warn that those limits are often too high. We can kill pathogens in our water—but still suffer disease outbreaks when treatment falls short, and research has identified risks posed by byproducts of the disinfectants used to kill those germs. What’s more, millions of Americans drink water from private wells that remain entirely unregulated.
Perhaps most alarming, we know much more about the health risks of the “thousands of synthetic compounds” that CR warned about so long ago. Especially concerning are per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, or PFAS. These “forever chemicals” are ubiquitous in consumer products, persist both in the environment and in bodies, and have been linked to some cancers, immune problems, female infertility, and other health issues.
Almost half the nation’s tap water could contain at least one of these harmful chemicals, according to a recent estimate from the U.S. Geological Survey. And tests by CR a few years ago detected PFAS in 117 of 120 water samples taken from taps across the country, with more than a third of those above a level that CR’s scientists believed should be the maximum. Also similar to 50 years ago, the EPA’s ability to regulate contaminants lags behind industry’s ability to develop and unleash new and potentially harmful chemicals into the environment. The agency recently proposed landmark new regulations that would limit how much certain PFAS are allowed in drinking water. But questions remain about whether the proposed limits will be strict enough to protect our health and the health of our kids.
There is also the problem that regulations alone can’t solve: money. New lead pipes have been illegal since 1986—but millions of old pipes haven’t been replaced, leaving the door open to crises like the one faced in Flint, Mich. Water infrastructure everywhere is crumbling faster than funds can reach it—as residents of Jackson, Miss., experienced in 2022.
Water utilities across the country are scrambling to figure out how to cover the staggering costs expected to come with eliminating PFAS and other emerging toxins from our water. When the Bipartisan Infrastructure Deal became law in November 2021, it included the largest investment in drinking water in U.S. history: $55 billion. Yet Erik Olson, senior strategic director at the Natural Resources Defense Council, calls it “basically a small down payment” on addressing America’s drinking water problems.
In the meantime, you are probably wondering what you can do now to safeguard your water. In addition to making your home tap water safer, you might also want to know how to improve its taste and smell. Here is our step-by-step guide for doing just that.
How to Check Your Drinking Water
One key outcome of the Safe Drinking Water Act was requiring water utilities not only to test water but also to make the results public. That was a game-changer in raising awareness about water quality, and has helped communities and individuals address problems as they emerged.
But those reports, called Consumer Confidence Reports, or CCRs, are far from perfect. They can be hard to get and even harder to interpret. They may include only contaminants that utilities are required to test for, which means emerging concerns, such as PFAS, can be omitted. They primarily measure contaminants in the water leaving treatment plants, not those that can enter water along the way to your home or in your home, such as lead. And they can’t help at all if yours is among the estimated 23 million households that get water from a private well.
Here’s how to get a fuller picture of your water quality, depending on whether you get it from a public utility or a private well.
If Your Water Comes From a Public Utility
That’s most of us: Ninety percent of Americans get drinking water from one of the 148,000 public systems overseen by the EPA.
Get a copy of your water report. Despite the limitations of CCRs, start by getting a copy of your report. If you pay your own water bill, you should receive your CCR around July 1 each year. If you don’t receive yours, contact your water supplier. If you rent or live in a condo, ask your landlord or building manager. You can also look for the report on the utility’s website, or search for it on the EPA’s website. Utilities serving more than 100,000 people must make them available, and some smaller ones do it voluntarily.
Make sense of your report. Focus on the summary near the top of each report that shows whether any contaminants were found above government cutoffs and, if so, what the health risks are, what is being done to fix the problem, and what you should do in the meantime. For questions, call your local supplier, or the EPA’s Safe Drinking Water Hotline at 800-426-4791.
See whether the report includes PFAS. A growing list of states now require monitoring for some PFAS, and similar measures could be available soon in many other states. So check your report to see whether it includes information about PFAS.
Compare EPA cutoffs with other expert recommendations. One criticism of CCRs and the nation’s approach to water safety in general is that safety thresholds are often too high. For example, the EPA’s maximum contaminant level for arsenic is 10 parts per billion. But CR and other experts say tap water should have no more than 3 ppb. So see “What Shouldn’t Be in Your Water,” below, which gives information about common contaminants in drinking water. You can also learn more about contaminants in your local water, as well as recommendations from the Environmental Working Group for safer levels, by typing your ZIP code into the EWG’s Tap Water Database.
Decide whether to test your tap water. Here are some factors for two common contaminants that can help you decide whether to test your water.
Lead
Your CCR will show an average lead level based on water taken from a limited sample of homes in your community, not specifically your home. So you may want to test even if your report doesn’t show any lead. That can be an especially good idea if you live in a home or apartment built before 1986, or if there is a pregnant person or young child in your home.
PFAS
Consider testing if your report does not include information about these chemicals or if the thresholds it uses are above the levels that CR recommends (0.004 parts per trillion for PFOA and 0.02 ppt for PFOS, two compounds that raise particular concerns; 5 ppt for any other PFAS; and 10 ppt for total PFAS). Testing may make extra sense if you live near a known or suspected site that could be contaminated with PFAS; such sites can include manufacturing plants, airports, and military bases. One source for information is the map maintained by the EWG.
If You Have Well Water
If you’re among the minority of Americans who depend on a private well, you’re largely on your own: You’ll likely have to get the water tested yourself and choose what contaminants to test for. To help decide which to focus on, ask your county health department what concerns are common to your area and whether programs exist to help cover the cost.
All well-water drinkers will want to check for bacteria. If you live near farmland, nitrates—which can come from animal manure—and pesticides may be an issue. Radon—a naturally occurring radioactive gas that can get into water from soil—can be a problem in some places, so the EPA recommends you test for that too. For lead and PFAS, consider the same factors as those listed above.
The EPA recommends that well owners test their water every year. And test immediately if there are reports of contaminated groundwater in your area; if there are significant changes near your well caused by flooding, construction, or other activities; if you’ve replaced or repaired any part of your well system; or if you notice a change in the color, taste, or smell of your water.
What Shouldn’t Be in Your Water
The Environmental Protection Agency regulates about 90 contaminants. Some are familiar, such as E. coli and lead. Others are not: Who ever heard of pentachlorophenol, a type of “discharge from wood-preserving factories”?
The EPA has set limits for how much of each can be in drinking water. But Kelly Hunter Foster, senior attorney at the Waterkeeper Alliance, says those can be higher than recommended for protecting health. For example, the “public health goal” is zero for benzene. But the EPA allows drinking water to have 0.05 parts per million of that chemical. The Environmental Working Group website lists the federal legal limit for the compounds, plus its lower recommended levels.
Below, we’ve broken contaminants into groups and describe how they get into water, and how they can affect your health in the short and long term. We also provide information about some contaminants, such as PFAS, that aren’t yet federally regulated.
Regulated
Microorganisms
Examples: Giardia lamblia, E. coli, Legionella.
How do they get into water? Improperly treated human waste and animal manure. Small, remote areas are more likely to have challenges because of insufficient resources and because the farther water must travel to its destination, the more the disinfectants used to treat it may lose their potency.
What are the risks? Gastrointestinal illness, Legionnaires’ disease.
Disinfection Byproducts
Examples: bromate, haloacetic acids, trihalomethanes.
How do they get into water? Chlorine and other disinfectants used to treat water can interact with organic matter to produce other toxic chemicals. Certain byproducts, while less harmful in the short term than bacteria, can be a risk to health over a long period of exposure.
What are the risks? Bladder cancer, liver and kidney problems, anemia, reproductive effects.
Heavy Metals
Examples: lead, copper, arsenic, mercury.
How do they get into water? Lead and copper can leach from pipes going into a building, or from plumbing and fixtures inside. Arsenic and mercury occur naturally and are made more prevalent by industrial
manufacturing waste.
What are the risks? High blood pressure, kidney and liver damage for adults, learning deficits and developmental harm to infants and children.
Nutrient Pollution
Examples: nitrate, nitrite.
How do they get into water? Excess nitrogen and phosphorous come from fertilizers, detergents, animal manure, cars, sewage plants, and other sources, and can trigger algae blooms that can be toxic to wildlife and humans.
What are the risks? A blood disorder called “blue baby syndrome” in infants.
Pesticides & Herbicides
Examples: alachlor, atrazine, glyphosate.
How do they get into water? The chemicals mostly come from the runoff of agricultural sites. Small amounts from individual home use, improperly disposed of, can also add up.
What are the risks? Cardiovascular and kidney problems, reproductive difficulties.
Radioactive Material
Examples: alpha/photon emitters, beta photon emitters, radium, uranium.
How do they get into water? These materials come from the erosion of natural deposits of radioactive minerals, as well as emissions and waste from the nuclear energy industry.
What are the risks? Cancer, kidney damage.
Unregulated
PFAS
Examples: PFOA, PFOS, and thousands of related chemicals that make products nonstick, water-resistant, and more.
How do they get into water? Industrial waste, recycled human waste used as fertilizer on farms, and waste from countless consumer products. Some states mandate testing and treatment of some PFAS, but federal limits are pending.
What are the risks? Cancer, fertility issues, developmental problems, endocrine disruption, high cholesterol.
Microplastics
Examples: Tiny particles of plastic, some visible only by microscope.
How do they get into water? Plastic products come apart with use and time, breaking into ever tinier fragments, which can make their way into lakes, rivers, and oceans. Plastic fibers even wash off of clothes into our water supplies.
What are the risks? No scientific consensus, but may be linked to inflammation and increased exposure to chemicals that can disrupt hormones.
Other Contaminants
Pharmaceuticals, fracking-related contaminants, cyanotoxins (from blue-green algae), perchlorate (also known as rocket fuel), and 6PPDquinone (from road tires) are just a few of the contaminants that many experts say could be getting into our water and harming our health but are not currently regulated at the federal level.
What to Do If You Have Water Trouble
If your local water report (the CCR) reveals contamination or your water test comes back with alarming results, how concerned should you be, and how quickly do you need to act? That depends on what you find.
If the test shows bacteria—such as E. coli or Legionella—contact your health department right away for help interpreting the results. Depending on what type of bacteria the test finds, you may need to stop drinking the water entirely until it has been treated. That’s especially important if there are people in your household who are vulnerable because they are elderly, very young, or pregnant.
For lead, take kids who have been drinking the water to a doctor to check for high blood levels of this heavy metal. Consider doing this for adults too. Next steps depend on blood levels.
While PFAS in your water is alarming, testing your blood is not routinely recommended. For one thing, those tests are hard to find, expensive, and limited in the number of PFAS they test for, and they won’t tell you whether your health has been or will be affected. And like many other contaminants, PFAS pose long-term rather than immediate health risks. So the best advice is to continue routine health checkups with your doctor while trying to avoid additional exposure.
Whatever the contaminant, also contact your public water utility and health department to let them know what you’ve found so that they can investigate and coordinate a fix, says Erik Olson at the Natural Resources Defense Council. If the utilities aren’t responsive, contact your elected officials to put the pressure on.
Whether what you’ve found is potentially harmful to your health or just makes your water look, taste, or smell bad, there are steps you can take to get the contaminants out of your water, starting by using a filter.
Pick a Filter, but Not Just Any Filter
Whatever your water problem is—a bad smell or taste from something like sulfur, an immediate health risk from bacteria or viruses, or a long-term potential health threat from PFAS, lead, or many other contaminants— there’s a filter that can fix it.
“Don’t panic,” says Eric Yeggy, director of technical affairs at the Water Quality Association. “There are really simple, in-home treatment solutions for virtually every water problem that you’re likely to encounter.”
But the trick is to find one that works for your specific problem. And that’s not always easy.
For one thing, you can’t necessarily trust the marketing claims that filter manufacturers make when it comes to contaminant removal. The specific words they use in those claims matter, and the differences can be subtle.
For example, the only guarantee that a filter removes a specific contaminant is certification by a reputable third-party organization—such as the National Sanitation Foundation (NSF), Water Quality Association (WQA), Canadian Standards Association (CSA), or International Association of Plumbing & Mechanical Officials (IAPMO).
Some companies may advertise that a product was “tested to” or “meets” a standard from one of those groups. But that’s very different from being “certified by” one of them.
Here’s why: “Certified by” water filters are monitored and subjected to extensive, longterm testing to see how they perform over extended periods. On the other hand, products that are “tested to” those standards may have undergone only a short-term test, and by a lab with uncertain qualifications. So it’s important to verify that any water filter you choose is certified by a trusted organization such as the NSF, WQA, CSA, or IAPMO.
Next, make sure you choose the type of filter that fits your needs and your budget. There are several types to choose from. They include whole-home filtering systems, which will filter the water soon after it enters your home; undersink and countertop versions, which work on individual sinks or faucets; and water pitchers.
Filters use one or more technologies: mineral-removing ion exchange units, reverse osmosis, bacteria-killing distillation, virus and bacteria-disinfecting ultraviolet light, and, most commonly, contaminant-absorbing activated carbon blockers.
Another important consideration is maintenance, Yeggy says. Filters are certified to handle a specific quantity of water over their life span, and they really can get “full” of the contaminants that they filter out. So it can be helpful to buy filters that indicate when replacement is needed.
Or, if you hire a professional to install a system, ask what maintenance is required and how much it costs. That’s important because those costs can add up, fast. And, yes, the filter cartridges in countertop pitchers really do need to be changed as often as the manufacturer says they do.
Source: Consumer Reports
